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History of Attention There has been a large increase in research activity in the area of attention since the 1950s muscle relaxant benzodiazepines discount 100 mg voveran sr amex. This research has focused not only on attention muscle relaxant ointment order genuine voveran sr on-line, but also how attention is related to memory and executive functioning back spasms 9 months pregnant order voveran sr 100 mg without a prescription. Human learning and behaviour are dependent on our ability to pay attention to our environment muscle relaxant elderly order cheap voveran sr online, retain and retrieve information, and use cognitive strategies. An understanding of the development of attention is also critical when we consider that deficits in attention often lead to difficulties in school and in the work force. There is no doubt that an understanding of attention and related concepts is critical to our understanding of human cognition and learning. Introduction to the History of Research on Attention the study of attention is a major part of contemporary cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Attention plays a critical role in essentially all aspects of perception, cognition, and action, influencing the choices we make. The study of attention has been of interest to the field of psychology since its earliest days. However, many ideas about attention can be traced to philosophers in the 18th and 19th centuries, preceding the foundation of the field of psychology. Among the issues considered were the role of attention on conscious awareness and thought, and whether attention was directed voluntarily or involuntarily toward objects or events. For instance, Joan Luis Vives (1492-1540) recognized the role of attention in forming memories. Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) introduced the concept of apperception, which refers to an act that is necessary for an individual to become conscious of a perceptual event. He noted that without apperception, information does not enter conscious awareness. Leibniz said, "Attention is a determination of the soul to know something in preference to other things". In summary, many philosophers gave attention a central role in perception and thinking. They introduced several important issues, such as the extent to which attention is directed automatically or intentionally. Although they conducted little experimental research themselves, their conceptual analysis of attention laid the foundation for the scientific study of attention in ensuing years. The philosophical analyses of attention led to some predictions that could be tested experimentally. In addition, in the mid-1800s psychophysical methods were being developed that allowed the relation between physical stimulus properties and their corresponding psychological perceptions to be measured. In addition, the relation between attention and perception was one of the first topics to be studied in experimental psychology. Wundt held that attention was an inner activity that caused ideas to be present to differing degrees in consciousness. He distinguished between perception, which was the entry into the field of attention, and apperception, which was responsible for entry into the inner focus. At the end of the 19th century, Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) argued that attention is essential for visual perception. Using himself as a subject and pages of briefly visible printed letters as stimuli, he found that attention could be directed in advance of the stimulus presentation to a particular region of the page, even though the eyes were kept fixed at a central point. He also found that attention was limited: the letters in by far the largest part of the visual field, even in the vicinity of the fixation point, were not automatically perceived. In his famous Principles of Psychology (1980), James asserted that "the faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention, over and over again, is the very root of judgment, character, and will. According to James (1890), "It is taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a condition which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed, scatterbrained state. Pillsbury (1908/1973) agreed with Titchener, indicating, "the essence of attention as a conscious process is an increase in the clearness on one idea or a group of ideas at the expense of others". Researchers at the beginning of the 20th century debated how this increased clearness is obtained.

This means that the behavior of the opposition in democratic states sends a credible "signal" of the likely intentions of the government knee spasms at night order voveran sr overnight. Schultz argues that because a free press guarantees transparency and because the political opposition has different incentives than does the government muscle relaxant examples cheap voveran sr 100 mg with mastercard, democracies are better able than non-democracies to send credible signals of their resolve in crises spasms detoxification buy voveran sr no prescription. This reduces the dangers of misperceptions in crises involving one and particularly two democratic states spasms in upper abdomen order voveran sr without a prescription, and thus minimizes the dangers of crisis escalation. More specifically, the transparency of the democratic process makes it obvious whether democratic political leaders involved in international crises have the support of the political opposition and the public in an international crisis. In the absence of domestic support the government cannot stand firm in a crisis because it cannot implement its threats. Knowing the path through which a crisis is likely to escalate makes it unlikely that actors will walk down that path. This reduction in misperceptions is critical if we recall, from our earlier discussion of the bargaining model of war, that misperceptions based on private information and incentives to misrepresent that information constitute one of the few paths by which rational states can end up in war with each other (Fearon, 1995). There are also non-rational paths through which misperceptions lead to war (Jervis, 1976; Lebow, 1981), and democracy reduces the likelihood of those paths arising as well. If both adversaries are democracies, misperceptions are reduced even further, though it is not clear whether this reduction is enough to account for the near-absence of war between democracies. Like most parsimonious models, however, it is based on some fairly strong assumptions. One such assumption is that in a democratic state the opposition has access to the same information as the government. Schultz correctly argues that rally effects are temporary, but what he ignores is that a leader can exploit his/her temporary boost in popular support by conducting policies that have far-reaching consequences, or making institutional changes that further shift the balance of power within the government in his/her favor. Among other things, war usually results in an increased centralization of power in the executive branch of the government. As James Madison the State and Societal Level 115 wrote to Thomas Jefferson in 1793, "War is. War is a particularly severe kind of crisis, and crises enable governments to do things they might not otherwise be able to do. As Rahm Emanuel, White House Chief of Staff under President Barack Obama, said in November 2008, "You never want a serious crisis to go to waste. This implies that under certain conditions the political opposition might have incentives to oppose war not only when it anticipates an unsuccessful or unpopular war, but also when it expects a successful war, since such wars are invariably followed by an increase in popular support for government. Some argue that during the crisis with France in 1798 (often referred to as the "Quasi War"), the Republicans opposed war because they feared that the Federalists would exploit a successful war by taking actions to curtail public dissent and impede the efforts of Republicans to return to power (Levy and Mabe, 2004). Research on the democratic peace has evolved through a number of stages during the last quarter-century. It began by describing a strong empirical regularity, and then demonstrated, at least in the eyes of its proponents, that the regularity was not simply the by-product of other factors that happen to be correlated with democracy. After scholars reached a consensus that democracies rarely if ever go to war with each other, and that the answer had something to do with the nature of democracy rather than "spurious" influences, scholars began constructing models to explain the democratic peace. Models that generated additional predictions that run contrary to other known facts about democratic war or foreign policy behavior were rejected. The new models have generated new predictions about a wide range of other types of behavior (conflict resolution, intervention, covert action, the conduct and outcome of war, perceptions of the adversaries, etc. Scholars have yet to reach a consensus about the "true" explanation for the democratic peace, but there are clear signs of progress in the sophistication of our models. This raises the interesting question as to whether the model applies to new democracies, those just making the transition from authoritarian rule. Among other things, it would suggest that by promoting the development of democracies around the world the United States and other advanced democratic states could contribute to the elimination of war as well as to the establishment of liberal institutions and political freedom. In fact, in his 1994 State of the Union address President Bill Clinton justified a policy of promoting democratization around the world by referring to the absence of war among democracies. Some researchers question this prescription, however, and argue that although well-established democratic dyads are peaceful, the process of transition to democracy can be a particularly destabilizing period, and that democratizing states occasionally go to war against other states and even against each other (Mansfield and Snyder, 2002, 2005). The democratization process brings new social groups with widely divergent interests into the political process at a time when the state lacks the institutional capacity to accommodate conflicting interests and respond to popular demands (Huntington, 1968). This conflict can be exacerbated if democratization is coupled with the introduction of market forces into non-market economies, which leads to popular pressures for state protection against the pain of economic adjustment (Snyder, 2000). The resulting high levels of political instability can contribute to war through a number of paths, including the diversionary mechanisms discussed in the next chapter. Democratization can be particularly destabilizing in multi-ethnic societies where ethnic groups are uncertain about how fully their rights will be protected, especially if the state in transition is too weak to maintain a monopoly of violence to protect those rights (Gurr, 2000; Ayoob, 2001).

Risk encompasses awareness quad spasms after squats buy voveran sr american express, assessment (or evaluation) infantile spasms 2 month old buy voveran sr 100 mg lowest price, mitigation spasms gums cheap voveran sr 100 mg free shipping, and management of the risk muscle relaxant whiplash buy cheap voveran sr 100mg on line. What controls can be used to remove this hazard, or make a decision to accept some risk Controls developed for the risk are implemented (or put into operation or practice). After a period of evaluation as new data becomes available, the controls implemented are reviewed to determine whether they were adequate, or if additional controls must be added. The philosophy of a biosafety program is based on an early estimation of risk, followed by application of appropriate containment and protective measures. Institute personnel are depicted as the spokes of a wheel that work together to accomplish a common mission. It is very important to investigate and review safety incidents at the institute because presentation of this data will heighten the awareness of individuals that accidents do happen despite safeguards. In the present context, it is a systematic, critical review of laboratory safety features and procedures. The terms "survey" (comprehensive view) and "inspection" (a critical appraisal, description of some obvious hazards and how safety personnel try to minimize the risk of these hazards, an official examination, or checking or testing against established standards) are often used interchangeably with the term "audit. Safety personnel must actively engage with and seek the help of all administrative and laboratory personnel in hazard identification. It is important for safety personnel to remain actively engaged with laboratory personnel outside of laboratory audits to minimize potential negative associations that may be encountered with inspections. It must be understood that a safety department cannot provide absolute safety, but strives to provide reasonable safety. Safety personnel advise, guide, provide limited training, and implement institute and regulatory policies (in conjunction with the institutional biosafety committee). The safety department, with continued support from management and all facility personnel, can minimize the risk of hazards by implementing institute and regulatory guidelines. General safety, life safety, biological safety, chemical hygiene, and radiation safety are topics covered in a typical laboratory safety audit. Laboratory audits should be scheduled on a regular basis and may be announced or unannounced. Self-audits of required safety practices provide a measure for achieving compliance with safety rules and regulations. Later, a written report with suggestions for corrective action may be sent to the laboratory supervisor. The supervisor reports progress on remediation to the safety specialist within a mutually agreed on, fixed-time period. Safety personnel should follow up on any deficiencies noted during a laboratory audit periodically to ensure laboratory personnel have taken the appropriate corrective actions. Support from higher management is essential for an audit to have the desired effect of improving employee safety, as well as instituting compliance with applicable regulations. Citing the pertinent requirement or applicable regulation on the checklist provides a ready reference and justification for each item listed on the checklist. Four events that warrant conducting a formal, unscheduled audit of a laboratory include the following57: 1. If deviations are life threatening, access to the laboratory area 888 is restricted until corrective actions have been taken. Any Department of the Army headquarters agency can recommend special studies or reviews when (a) conditions or practices that may affect safety have changed, (b) major system modifications to facility design and physical configuration are made, and (c) safety, health, and environmental protection standards and requirements have changed significantly. These quarterly inspections augment the monthly inspections conducted by laboratory suite supervisors or their designees. The program encompasses physical security, biological safety, biological agent accountability, and personal reliability as measures to prevent unauthorized access to agents of bioterrorism (select agents). Many of the applicable regulations and policies are summarized in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.

The data from the surveys showed that participants believed that true alarm rate was the main factor that influenced their decision to react muscle relaxant vs analgesic generic 100mg voveran sr. Participants also believed that long signal duration (4 s) was a better match muscle relaxant pills over the counter order voveran sr 100mg without a prescription, and more accurately portrayed a valid signal muscle relaxant 563 pliva generic 100 mg voveran sr visa. The second experiment performed was meant to test how people respond to two different alarm signals muscle relaxant non sedating order discount voveran sr on line, when one uses a short signal and the other uses a long signal. This would show whether alarm duration will affect perceived alarm validity across different systems. As in the previous study, they were randomly assigned to 80 % and 60 % true alarm rate groups, but in this study they were informed that the short and long signals came from different alarm systems. Participants performed the same computer task in experiment one, and were told to click on the respond button when they heard a sound, and believed it was a true alarm. It was found that participants responded at a significantly higher frequency for long duration signals. However, participants in the 80 % group responded to both signals at a significantly higher frequency than participants in the 60 % group. As in experiment one, participants believed that long duration signals were a better representation of true alarms. Although some participants did rely on alarm duration to indicate false or true alarms, many participants employed 43 this publication is available free of charge from: doi. Some relied on the true alarm rate, some used a combination of true alarm rate and signal duration, others responded to all alarms, and some participants had no particular decision making pattern. The most likely reason that the results differ from experiment one, is that when participants knew that the durations represent two different systems, and that both systems exhibited a true alarm rate, they knew that one system could not consistently be true, while the other was consistently false. Further analysis revealed that those with significant computer knowledge were more likely to rely on the true alarm rate, and older participants were less likely to rely on signal duration to make a decision. These findings show the importance of signal duration as an alarm characteristic that could make signals seem more valid. Signal duration is clearly just one of many factors, but this study shows that it does effect the response rate to alarms. When presented with short duration and long duration alarms from different systems, participants still responded to long duration alarms at a higher frequency, but the trend was not as strong. When presented with two alarm systems, participants used multiple strategies to decide whether to respond or not, including alarm duration, true alarm rate, or simply responding to every alarm. General Policy for Activating Outdoor Warning Siren Systems for Severe Weather: Survey of emergency managers. Discipline: Crisis Management/Disasters Rating: 7A Policies and practices for using outdoor warning sirens were studied by sending an online survey to all members of the International Association of Emergency Managers. The survey was designed to gain a better understanding of "the general uses of outdoor siren technology, the geographic variability of siren warning system deployment, and the diversity in siren warning policy and procedures". About 35 % of respondents were from a county jurisdiction, 11 % were from a large city jurisdiction, just over one quarter were from a small city, approximately 16 % represented a town or village, and approximately 15 % were from a fire or law enforcement district. Other jurisdictions included universities, statewide offices, Native American tribal nations, coast guard facilities, U. Many respondents listed that they also used them for events like flash flooding, lightning, hurricanes, rotating cloud walls, and derechos. Additionally, 27 % of the emergency managers reported that their jurisdiction participated in a regional siren plan. Around 60 % had multiple sound options, however many officials commented on the difficulty of using multiple tone options. Of those who did use the multiple tones, they were most often used for thunderstorms, tornadoes, hazmat, civil defense, general weather emergencies, or calling the fire department. Mainly voice options were used in outdoor areas that attracted large amounts of people in a small space, such as a park or baseball fields. More than forty percent of respondents used more than four methods to educate the public. These methods included press releases, websites, weather awareness events, reports to city council, media interviews, notices in utility bills, and letters to schools.

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